273
Arctic Yearbook 2013
Sánchez Ramos
indication that biological production may be lower than originally estimated. The
reduction in sea ice extent bears emphasis: the last six years, 2007-2012, have produced
the ―six lowest sea ice minimum extents since satellite observations began in 1979‖. See
Artic Ocean Review Project 2009-2013. Final Report-Phase II 2011-2013. 8
th
Arctic
Council Ministerial Meeting, Kiruna, Sweden, 15th May 2013.
2.
In this sense Graczyk and Koivurova (2013) pointed out that ―established in 1996, the
region‘s primary forum today is the Arctic Council, which has reached a turning point and
is undergoing important changes to combat rising challenges posed by climate change and
globalization‖ (1).
3.
Although in May 2008 the five coastal States (United States, Canada, Norway, Russia and
Denmark/Greenland) established an ad hoc institution in form of occasional foreign
minister meetings (see Ilulissat Declaration), we believe that the AC is the primary forum
in the region, because it includes all Arctic States, indigenous representatives and
observers.
4.
―The establishment of the Arctic Council as a forum without legal personality, and thus
not as an ‗international organization‘ as that term is understood under international law
was and objective of the United States and is consistent with a tendency in recent
American diplomatic practice to seek an informal cooperative structure when the
structure is adequate for the purposes of the issues involved‖ (Bloom 1999: 712).
5.
Expression used by the
Senior Arctic Officials. Report to Ministers
, Nuuk, Greenland, May 2011.
6.
See Senior Arctic Officials (SAO) Report to Ministers, Nuuk, Greenland, May 2011: 48. In
this sense, the Tromsø Declaration on the occasion of the Sixth Ministerial Meeting of the
Arctic Council (the 29 of April, 2009) pointed out some of the changes that should be
undertaken: 1) regarding human induced global climate change as one of the greatest
challenges facing the Arctic; 2) deeply concerned by the escalating rate of warming of the
Arctic climate, which will likely also affect the rest of the world; 3) noting the extensive
reduction of sea ice coverage and thickness resulting in increased marine access to the Arctic,
and acknowledging the stress being placed upon sea-ice dependent and other species; 4)
noting that the trans-boundary pollutants, including air pollutant emissions, heavy metals and
persistent organic pollutants continue to be a major concern. Moreover, the Nuuk Declaration
(2011) states that ―recognizing that rapidly changing circumstances, in particular the changing
climate, have increased the challenges and opportunities facing the Arctic in both volume and
complexity, and underscoring the importance of strengthening the Arctic Council to address
this change‖.
7.
We would like to point out that, although new working groups were incorporated, the
structure remains unchanged. However, we believe that the Permanent Arctic Council
Secretariat entails a change.