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Arctic Yearbook 2013
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political field, the thaw in Cold War relations, and the emergence of a number of international and
regional organisations and frameworks. Among manifold examples are the codification of the
common maritime law and the creation of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS,
signed in 1982, came into force in 1994); the adoption of the Arctic Environmental Protection
Strategy (AEPS) in 1991 that later led to the establishment of the Arctic Council five years later; the
establishment of Barents Euro-Arctic Council and Barents Regional Council in 1993; the formation
of such indigenous peoples‘ organisations as the Inuit Circumpolar Council (1977), Saami Council
(originally established in 1956 as the Nordic Saami Council, but renamed in 1992 after the inclusion
of a Russian Saami group), Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (1990), and the
Gwich‘in Council International (1999).
The increasing attention, turned to the Northern regions, did not stop there. On the contrary, it has
evolved into a global trend, resulting in a second – much wider and more pronounced – wave of
international attention aimed at the Arctic.
Second Wave: Global Interest
The reason behind this global interest is, first and foremost, increased accessibility caused by the
effects of global warming. The rise of global average temperature has triggered a chain reaction,
leading to a significant decrease in Arctic sea ice extent – a process that has been steadily accelerating
for the last two decades. In fact, September 2012 set the lowest record of Arctic ice extent since the
beginning of the satellite observation in 1979: a staggering 49% reduction in ice-covered area as
compared to the average conditions of a period 1979-2000 (NSIDC, 2012). The thinner first-year ice
that slowly replaces the thicker older ice and is formed during the course of a winter is much more
likely to melt during the following summer months and is significantly easier to break. This makes
the Arctic Ocean accessible for longer shipping periods and for less sophisticated vessels, as well as
creates a feasible possibility of future ice-less summers in the Arctic.
The opening up of the Arctic has created momentum within the shipping and energy industry. The
2008 US Geological Survey research publication estimated that underneath the Arctic seabed lie
extensive hydrocarbon deposits – around 13% of the global undiscovered oil and 30% of the
undiscovered gas resources (USGS News Release, 2008), or 22% of the world's energy resources
altogether (Budzik, 2009: 1). The journey via two Arctic shipping lanes – Russia's Northern Sea
Route (NSR) and Canada's Northwest Passage (NWP) – is also a hidden treasure for business.
Compared to traditional routes via the Suez and Panama Canals, sailing through the Arctic Ocean
would correspond to a 20-30% decrease in travel distance (Conley & Kraut, 2010: 6), which means
shorter travel times, less fuel consumed, faster arrival of goods and an alternative, safer (in terms of
piracy) connection between European and Asian markets. Finally, the increased accessibility of the
Arctic Ocean is paramount to the emergence of new fishing grounds and is bound to influence the
situation on the world fish market.
Quite naturally, the increase in accessibility is of interest not only to the coastal states that have a
direct connection to the Arctic Ocean, but also to the so-called ―outsiders‖ – nations located further
south from the Arctic Circle. It is an unprecedented situation in current times, that an ocean